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The political rhetoric of both Ronald Reagan in the 1980s and Bill Clinton a decade later set a cultural stage for the rise of venture labor. With manufacturing in decline, competing political proposals emerged for how to fix the problems of the economy. For political conservatives, the answer invo…

Innovation alone cannot be blamed for this shift in workplace culture. Before the rise of Internet firms, technology companies were considered stable places to work. Companies like IBM and Kodak Eastman are examples of American companies that were the technology leaders of their time, while offerin…

The decline in manufacturing jobs in the United States left a cultural vacuum that the rhetoric of the Internet filled. Changes in the economy, in markets, and in political rhetoric all supported the idea that the growth of dot-coms would continue indefinitely and that these new technologies could …

Social scientists have studied the transition from the post–World War II reliance on industrial and manufacturing sectors to a “postindustrial” or service-based economy. The changes that came to be called the “new economy” in the 1990s are a continuation of that transition. The economic shifts are …

By the time layoffs and early retirement programs ended, IBM had almost halved its workforce from 405,500 people to 225,000.5 One-fifth of those laid-off employees came back as consultants, a practice that became increasingly common in the 1990s.6 Making IBM “leaner” matched the image of the compan…