More generally, there has been a systemic tendency for technological and product fixes to recurrently produce monopoly windfall profits in high­ income countries where innovations concentrate, while low-income coun­tries rarely share in the windfall. Moreover, protectionism has also played a prominent role in maintaining or restoring the global competitive posi­tion of high-wage sites of production. To put it differently, we found that while spatial fixes tended to erode the North-South divide, technological fixes, product fixes, and protectionism tended to reconstitute the divide continually.